When it comes to climate change and health, the World Health Organization (WHO) expects the earth's warming weather patterns to further exacerbate the health risks that women already face in many parts of the globe. In the U.S., the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recognizes climate change as an "urgent women's health concern and a major public health challenge."
As the global climate continues to shift, the complex interplay of climate change with women's roles in society, their economic status and their physiology may leave them more vulnerable to a host of harms. Reports point to expected rises in disease, malnutrition, pregnancy complications, poor mental health, violence and even death.
Maternal and Fetal Health Risks of a Changing Climate
A 2021 paper in the International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics finds that the evolving climate presents a "clear and present danger" to the reproductive health of girls and women globally.
Regarding climate change and reproduction, research published in JAMA Network Open reports that rising temperatures and air pollution may worsen pregnancy outcomes. The 2020 systematic review, which included more than 32 million births in the U.S., observes a statistically significant link between adverse pregnancy outcomes among women exposed to excess heat, ozone or fine particulate matter. Notably, exposure to ozone or fine particulates was associated with increased risk of preterm birth in 79 percent of studies reviewed and low birth weight in 86 percent of studies included in the analysis.
Compounding these risks, research published in PLOS Medicine notes that the distinct health needs of women during pregnancy, such as added nutrition, place them at risk of suffering from climate-sensitive diseases. The consequences of climate change may also worsen cardiac disease and respiratory disease.
Finally, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics anticipates a rise in the spread of malaria, dengue, Zika and other vector-borne illnesses that, in turn, may lead to more instances of preterm delivery, low birth weight, fetal demise and other adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Cataclysmic Weather Events
As rising temperatures give way to more extreme weather, women are more likely to be casualties. Floods, droughts and other natural disasters kill more women than men and kill them at a younger age, according to the WHO report on Gender, Climate Change and Health. The agency reached that consensus after analyzing census information on the effects of natural disasters across 141 countries.
The WHO further establishes that the effect is most extreme in countries where women hold very low social, economic and political status. Notably, 90 percent of the 140,000 people who perished in the 1991 cyclones in Bangladesh were women. As to possible causes, experts point out that Bangladeshi women were more likely to be homebound, to wait to gather relatives before fleeing and to have their movements restricted by their culturally appropriate clothing.
Relatedly, economic and cultural barriers in some regions may prevent women and girls from learning to swim. Thus, when faced with a major flood, their inability to swim lowers their chances for survival compared to their male counterparts.
Extreme Heat and Health
In developed regions, the WHO reports that several studies suggest women are more likely to die during heatwaves. For example, during the 2003 European heatwave, more women succumbed to rising temperatures than men, per a paper in the Annual Review of Public Health.
When it comes to heat-related infectious agents, a United Nations report suggests rising temperatures may increase the spread of mosquitoes that harbor malaria. Pregnant women, the WHO adds, are particularly vulnerable to this potentially deadly disease because malaria-carrying mosquitoes may detect them more easily. For example, at 28 weeks or later, pregnant women produce an average of 21 percent more exhaled breath than their nonpregnant counterparts. Pregnant women who contract malaria face an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, stillbirth and low birth weight, further illuminating the ties between climate change and reproduction.
When faced with weather-related dangers, the WHO observes that women respond differently than men to these hazards. For example, studies in India show that women typically have less access to weather alerts and other safety information, thereby limiting their ability to respond to the evolving climate.
Additionally, because women account for most smallholder farmers globally, drought, heat and climate-related crop failures imperil their livelihoods, potentially casting them into poverty and worsening their access to food and other much-needed resources.
Climate-Related Scarcity
The nutritional needs of women during menstruation and childbirth render them particularly vulnerable to climate-driven food insecurity, the WHO reports. At the same time, women and girls experience higher rates of anemia and malnutrition than their male counterparts. Anemia, as Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment notes, may cause lasting harm. Research links it to poor attention span, diminished working memory and other cognitive issues.
In low-lying regions, rising seas may contaminate drinking-water supplies. Although this danger impacts both men and women, a paper in the Lancet on salt-water contamination in Bangladesh finds higher rates of pre-eclampsia, eclampsia and high blood pressure among pregnant women after consuming contaminated water.
Conversely, water scarcity that follows a prolonged drought is tied to water shortages and food insecurity and may give rise to other harms, including fires, civil unrest, poverty and interrupted access to healthcare. When water is hard to come by, women and girls disproportionately suffer the health consequences of nutritional deficiency. At the same time, they must journey farther to find potable water.
In terms of health impacts, women forced to carry heavy pots of water longer and longer distances may suffer from exhaustion and bone and muscle damage. A case study in World Development on climate change and health suggests that women exhaust at least one-third of their daily energy reserves fetching water during the dry season in much of rural India and Africa. Hours spent fetching water also deny them the opportunity to fully participate in work or school.
Physical Violence and Psychological Dangers
The World Disaster Report finds "women and girls are at higher risk of sexual violence, sexual exploitation and abuse, trafficking and domestic violence in disasters." The aftermath of a natural disaster also increases the risk of women experiencing domestic violence, the WHO adds. Women in an active crisis area may avoid seeking refuge in shelters and instead remain with their abusers, creating a cycle of harm.
Cataclysmic events also may take a toll on mental health. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics reports that women may experience a higher incidence of post-traumatic stress, anxiety and depression following natural disasters. Furthermore, an empirical review of interviews with Hurricane Katrina survivors found that being a woman was one of the factors associated with later being diagnosed with an anxiety and mood disorder. Other factors include age, education, employment and income level.
As the WHO notes, the effects of climate change on women's health are both direct and indirect. Similarly, women's vulnerability to the consequences of the evolving climate is multifaceted, shaped by anatomy, societal norms and living conditions in the places they call home.
